Introduction
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Johannes, C; Le, T; et al. (2010) The Prevalence of Chronic Pain in United States Adults: Results of an Internet-Based Survey. The Journal of Pain Volume 11, Issue 11, November 2010, Pages 1230–1239
Raja, S. N., Carr, D. B., Cohen, M., Finnerup, N. B., Flor, H., Gibson, S., Keefe, F. J., Mogil, J. S., Ringkamp, M., Sluka, K. A., Song, X. J., Stevens, B., Sullivan, M. D., Tutelman, P. R., Ushida, T., & Vader, K. (2020). The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: concepts, challenges, and compromises. Pain, 161(9), 1976–1982. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001939
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What is Pain
Hedges, V. (2022, December 15). Pain and nociception. Introduction to Neuroscience. https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/introneuroscience1/chapter/pain/
Melzack, R. (2001) Pain and the Neuromatrix in the Brain Journal of Dental Education Volume 65, No. 12
The Revised International Association for the Study of Pain Definition of pain: Concepts, challenges, and compromises. International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP, 2023).
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U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2019, May). Pain Management Best Practices Inter-Agency Task Force Report: Updates, Gaps, Inconsistencies, and Recommendations. Retrieved from U. S. Department of Health and Human Services website: https://www.hhs.gov/ash/advisory-committees/pain/reports/index.html
Watson, J. C. (2023). Overview of pain - neurologic disorders. Merck Manuals Professional Edition. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/pain/overview-of-pain
Nociceptive pain
Ballantyne, J.C., Fishman, S.M., & Rathmell, J.P. (2019). Bonica's Management of Pain (5th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. Chapter 5: Modulation of Pain.
Brooks, J., & Tracey, I. (2005). From nociception to pain perception: imaging the spinal and supraspinal pathways. Journal of anatomy, 207(1), 19–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00428.x
Donertas-Ayaz, B., & Caudle, R. M. (2023). Locus coeruleus-noradrenergic modulation of trigeminal pain: Implications for trigeminal neuralgia and psychiatric comorbidities. Neurobiology of pain (Cambridge, Mass.), 13, 100124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynpai.2023.100124
Dubin, A. E., & Patapoutian, A. (2010). Nociceptors: the sensors of the pain pathway. The Journal of clinical investigation, 120(11), 3760–3772. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI42843
Hydrocortisone (n.d.). Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action | DrugBank Online. https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB00741
International Association for the Study of Pain. (2011). Terminology | International Association for the Study of Pain. IASP. Retrieved from https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/?Section=Pain_Definitions#Hyperesthesia
Li, Y., Kim, W. M., Lee, Y. J., Kang, D. H., Lee, H. G., Choi, J. I., & Yoon, M. H. (2023). Antinociceptive effects of Nefopam activating descending serotonergic modulation via 5‐ht2 receptors in the nucleus raphe Magnus. European Journal of Pain. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.2173
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. (2010). Lippincott's Illustrated Review of Neuroscience (Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews) 1st Edition.
Lueptow, L. M., Fakira, A. K., & Bobeck, E. N. (2018). The Contribution of the Descending Pain Modulatory Pathway in Opioid Tolerance. Frontiers in neuroscience, 12, 886. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00886
Nachum, D. (revised 2020). Pain modulation and mechanisms (Section 2, Chapter 8) Neuroscience Online: An electronic textbook for the Neurosciences: Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy - the University of Texas Medical School at Houston. https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/s2/chapter08.html
Panchal, S. J., & Grami, V. (2014). Pain, Nociceptive vs. Neuropathic. In M. J. Aminoff & R. B. Daroff (Eds.), Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences (Second Edition) (pp. 749-752). Academic Press.
Neuropathic pain
Bennett, M. (2010). Neuropathic pain. OUP Oxford.
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Central pain syndrome. (n.d.) Cleveland Clinic . https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6012-central-pain-syndrome
Core Curriculum for Professional Education in Pain, edited by J. Edmond Charlton, IASP Press, Seattle, © 2005.
Finnerup, N.B., Kuner, R., Jensen, T.S., (2020) Neuropathic pain: From mechanisms to treatment. https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00045.2019
Haverfield, M. C., Giannitrapani, K., Timko, C., & Lorenz, K. (2018). Patient-Centered Pain Management Communication from the Patient Perspective. Journal of general internal medicine, 33(8), 1374–1380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-018-4490-y
Murnion B. P. (2018). Neuropathic pain: current definition and review of drug treatment. Australian prescriber, 41(3), 60–63. https://doi.org/10.18773/austprescr.2018.022
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. NINDS Central Pain Syndrome Information Page. accessed 12/2/13 http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/central_pain/central_pain.htm
Neuropathic Pain / Edition 2 by Michael Bennett. (2010) Oxford University Press, USA
Northwestern Medicine. (n.d.). Central pain syndrome causes and diagnoses. https://www.nm.org/conditions-and-care-areas/neurosciences/central-pain-syndrome/causes-and-diagnoses
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Roza, C.,; Bernal, L. (2022). Electrophysiological characterization of ectopic spontaneous discharge in axotomized and intact fibers upon nerve transection: A role in spontaneous pain? Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology, 474(4), 387–396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-021-02655-7
Stokes, L. (2018). ANA Position Statement: The Ethical Responsibility to Manage Pain and the Suffering It Causes. American Nurses Association. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3912/OJIN.Vol24No01PoSCol01
Volcheck, M. M., Graham, S. M., Fleming, K. C., Mohabbat, A. B., & Luedtke, C. A. (2023). Central sensitization, chronic pain, and other symptoms: Better understanding, better management. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine. https://www.ccjm.org/content/90/4/245
Watson, J. C. (2023, November 12). Neuropathic pain - neurologic disorders. Merck Manuals Professional Edition. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/pain/neuropathic-pain
Types of Analgesic Drugs
Reeves, K. C., Shah, N., Muñoz, B., & Atwood, B. K. (2022, May 26). Opioid receptor-mediated regulation of neurotransmission in the brain. Frontiers. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2022.919773/full
Non-opioid Analgesics (NOA)
Acetaminophen. Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action | DrugBank Online. (n.d.). https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB00316
NSAIDS
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Guo C. G., & Leung, W. K. (2020). Potential Strategies in the Prevention of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs-Associated Adverse Effects in the Lower Gastrointestinal Tract. Gut and liver, 14(2), 179–189. https://doi.org/10.5009/gnl19201
Luitjens, J., Gassert, F., Joseph, G., Lynch, J., Nevitt, M., Lane, N., ... & Link, T. (2023). Association Of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs On Synovitis And The Progression Of Osteoarthritis: Data From The Osteoarthritis Initiative. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage, 31, S411-S412
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Ruschitzka, F., Borer, J. S., Krum, H., Flammer, A. J., Yeomans, N. D., Libby, P., Lüscher, T. F., Solomon, D. H., Husni, M. E., Graham, D. Y., Davey, D. A., Wisniewski, L. M., Menon, V., Fayyad, R., Beckerman, B., Iorga, D., Lincoff, A. M., & Nissen, S. E. (2017). Differential blood pressure effects of ibuprofen, naproxen, and celecoxib in patients with arthritis: the PRECISION-ABPM (Prospective Randomized Evaluation of Celecoxib Integrated Safety Versus Ibuprofen or Naproxen Ambulatory Blood Pressure Measurement) Trial. European heart journal, 38(44), 3282–3292. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehx508
Taha, A. S., McCloskey, C., McSkimming, P., & McConnachie, A. (2018). Misoprostol for small bowel ulcers in patients with obscure bleeding taking aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (MASTERS): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. The lancet. Gastroenterology & hepatology, 3(7), 469–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(18)30119-5
Wallace J. L. (2012). NSAID gastropathy and enteropathy: distinct pathogenesis likely necessitates distinct prevention strategies. British journal of pharmacology, 165(1), 67–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01509.x
Wallace, J. L., & Del Soldato, P. (2003). The therapeutic potential of NO-NSAIDs. Fundamental & clinical pharmacology, 17(1), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1472-8206.2003.00125.x
Acetaminophen
European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL 2017 Clinical Practice Guidelines on the management of acute (fulminant) liver failure. J Hepatol 2017;66:1047–81
U.S. National Library of Medicine. (reviewed 2023). Acetaminophen: Medlineplus Drug Information. MedlinePlus. https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a681004.html
Aspirin
Aspirin. Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action | DrugBank Online. (n.d.). https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB00945
Lau KE, Lui F. Physiology, Prostaglandin I2. [Updated 2023 Aug 28]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562273/
Miser, W. F. (2011, June 15). Appropriate aspirin use for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. American Family Physician. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2011/0615/p1380.html
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Rucker D, Dhamoon AS. Physiology, Thromboxane A2. [Updated 2022]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539817/
Tkacs, N. C., & Herrmann, L. L. (2020). Advanced Physiology and Pathophysiology: Essentials for Clinical Practice. Springer Publishing Company, LLC.
Tearle, J. L. E., Tang, A., Vasanthakumar, A., & James, K. R. (2023). Role reversals: Non-canonical roles for immune and non-immune cells in the gut. Mucosal Immunology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mucimm.2023.11.004
Wang, L., Wu, Y., Jia, Z., Yu, J., & Huang, S. (2022). Roles of EP Receptors in the Regulation of Fluid Balance and Blood Pressure. Frontiers in endocrinology, 13, 875425. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2022.875425
Zeng, C., Liu, J., Zheng, X. et al. (2023) Prostaglandin and prostaglandin receptors: present and future promising therapeutic targets for pulmonary arterial hypertension. Respir Res 24, 263. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-023-02559-3
Nonopioid treatment
CDC 2022. Alternative Treatment Fact Sheet. Adapted 01/12/2024 from https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/pdf/nonopioid_treatments-a.pdf
Opioid analgesics
Corder, G., Castro, D. C., Bruchas, M. R., & Scherrer, G. (2018). Endogenous and Exogenous Opioids in Pain. Annual review of neuroscience, 41, 453–473. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-080317-061522
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Commonly used terms. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/opioids/basics/terms.html CDC (2022). National Center for Health Statistics. Drug Overdose Mortality by State. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/sosmap/drug_poisoning_mortality/drug_poisoning.htm
Dowell D, Ragan KR, Jones CM, Baldwin GT, Chou R. (2022). CDC Clinical Practice Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Pain — United States, 2022. MMWR Recomm Rep 2022;71(No. RR-3):1–95. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr7103a1
Dhaliwal A, Gupta M. Physiology, Opioid Receptor. [Updated 2023 Jul 24]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546642/
Herman TF, Cascella M, Muzio MR. Mu Receptors. [Updated 2023 Jul 30]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551554/
Parthipan, A., Banerjee, I., Humphreys, K., Asch, S. M., Curtin, C., Carroll, I., & Hernandez-Boussard, T. (2019). Predicting inadequate postoperative pain management in depressed patients: A machine learning approach. PloS one, 14(2), e0210575. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210575
Opioid Tolerance, Dependency, and Addiction
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Moe, S., Kirkwood, J., & Allan, G. M. (2019). Incidence of iatrogenic opioid use disorder. Canadian family physician Medecin de famille canadien, 65(10), 724.
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Opioid Routes of Administration
Michigan State University - Pain Relief for terminally ill patients. (n.d.). https://learn.chm.msu.edu/painmanagement/routes.asp
Managing Opioid Side-effects
Side effects of opioids. Faculty of Pain Medicine. (n.d.). https://fpm.ac.uk/opioids-aware-clinical-use-opioids/side-effects-opioids
Khansari, M., Sohrabi, M., & Zamani, F. (2013). The Useage of Opioids and their Adverse Effects in Gastrointestinal Practice: A Review. Middle East journal of digestive diseases, 5(1), 5–16.
Coanalgesic Drugs
Imani, F., & Varrassi, G. (2019). Ketamine as Adjuvant for Acute Pain Management. Anesthesiology and pain medicine, 9(6). https://doi.org/10.5812/aapm.100178
Le DT, Alem N. Facet Joint Injection. [Updated 2023 Jun 20]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK572125/
Nwosu, A. D.George; Chukwu, L.C.; Onwuasoigwe, O; Nweze, S; Nwadike, K; Redefining the Role of Analgesic Adjuvants in Pain Management: A Narrative Review. Indian Journal of Pain 37(2):p 65-73.
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Portenoy R. K. (2020). A Practical Approach to Using Adjuvant Analgesics in Older Adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 68(4), 691–698. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.16340
Sugimoto, M. A., Vago, J. P., Teixeira, M. M., & Sousa, L. P. (2016). Annexin A1 and the resolution of inflammation: Modulation of neutrophil recruitment, apoptosis, and clearance. Journal of Immunology Research, 2016, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/8239258
Yasir, M., Goyal, A., & Sonthalia, S. (2023). Corticosteroid Adverse Effects. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing
Pain Control with Hypnosis
Bicego, A., Rousseaux, F., Faymonville, M. E., Nyssen, A. S., & Vanhaudenhuyse, A. (2022). Neurophysiology of hypnosis in chronic pain: A review of recent literature. The American journal of clinical hypnosis, 64(1), 62–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/00029157.2020.1869517
Milling, L. S., Valentine, K. E., LoStimolo, L. M., Nett, A. M., & McCarley, H. S. (2021). Hypnosis and the alleviation of clinical pain: A comprehensive meta-analysis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 69(3), 297–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207144.2021.1920330
Madden, K., Middleton, P., Cyna, A. M., Matthewson, M., & Jones, L. (2016). Hypnosis for pain management during labour and childbirth. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2016(5), CD009356. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009356.pub3
Rosendahl, J., Alldredge, C. T., & Haddenhorst, A. (2024). Meta-analytic evidence on the efficacy of hypnosis for mental and somatic health issues: a 20 year perspective. Frontiers in psychology, 14, 1330238. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1330238